Bradley McGregor, MD, director of Clinical Research for the Lank Center of Genitourinary Oncology at the Dana-Farber Cancer Institute and assistant professor of Medicine at Harvard Medical School, both in Boston, Massachusetts. 

Bradley McGregor, MD, discusses the rationale for analyzing efficacy and safety exposure response to tivozanib in patients with renal cell carcinoma. 

Dr McGregor on the Rationale of Analyzing the Efficacy and Safety Exposure Response of Tivozanib in RCC

“In the past couple years, we’ve had 2 big trials that have really established that immunotherapy with a TKI…is no better than TKI [alone] when patients had progressed on immunotherapy.”

Bradley McGregor, MD, director of Clinical Research for the Lank Center of Genitourinary Oncology at the Dana-Farber Cancer Institute and assistant professor of Medicine at Harvard Medical School, discusses the rationale of analyzing the integrated efficacy and safety exposure response of tivozanib (Fotivda) for the treatment of patients with advanced renal cell carcinoma (RCC).

In recent years, phase 3 clinical trials have demonstrated that immunotherapy plus a TKI did not significantly improve outcomes vs a TKI alone in patients with advanced RCC who experienced disease progression on a checkpoint inhibitor–containing regimen, McGregor begins. Notably, the TiNivo-2 study (NCT04987203) specifically demonstrated worse outcomes in patients who were treated with tivozanib at 0.89 mg on days 1 to 21 in a 28-day cycle plus nivolumab (Opdivo) at 480 mg every 4 weeks due to the potential risk of higher rates of grade 3/4 hypertension, he explains.

The analysis also evaluated data from the phase 3 TIVO-1 (NCT01030783) and TIVO-3 (NCT02627963) trials, both of which assessed tivozanib at 1.34 mg vs sorafenib (Nexavar). In TIVO-1, patients were treated with tivozanib or sorafenib as initial targeted therapy, whereas patients in TIVO-3 were treated with tivozanib or sorafenib after progression on 2 or 3 systemic therapies.

Exposure response models from the analysis showed that tivozanib at 1.34 mg provided improved antitumor activity compared with tivozanib at 0.89 mg, and the incidence of hypertension was similar. Furthermore, the data suggested that tivozanib at 1.34 mg also provided a greater decrease in tumor size and may be more tolerable.

The optimal dose of tivozanib was considered in the analysis, along with what should be done during the treatment disease setting, McGregor notes. Based on the exposure response correlation, he concludes that the correct dosing has been established regarding efficacy and safety.

Videos

Dr McGregor on the Clinical Implications of the DAD-IO Trial in Urothelial Carcinoma

Bradley McGregor, MD, senior physician, clinical director, Lank Center for Genitourinary Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute; instructor, medicine, Harvard Medical School, discusses the clinical implications of the DAD-IO trial, which serves as an extension of the phase 1 DAD trial (NCT04724018), in patients with metastatic urothelial carcinoma.

DAD-IO aims to better understand the efficacy and safety of combination therapy consisting of sacituzumab govitecan-hziy (Trodelvy), enfortumab vedotin-ejfv (Padcev), and pembrolizumab (Keytruda) in the first-line setting in this patient population.

McGregor begins by stating that clinicians are particularly interested in the DAD-IO trial, though it’simportant to note that a press release published in May 2024 on the phase 3 TROPiCS-04 trial (NCT04527991), which compared sacituzumab govitecan with chemotherapy, revealed that the trial did not meet its primary end point for overall survival. Moreover, this press release raised concerns regarding thetoxicity of sacituzumab govitecan, he emphasizes. However, these data do not directly impact the DAD-IO trial, as DAD-IO uses a lower dose of sacituzumab govitecan, at 7.5 mg/kg compared with the 10-mg/kg dose that was explored in TROPiCS-04, according to McGregor. Furthermore, DAD-IO is being conducted in an earlier treatment setting and strongly encourages the use of Granulocyte colony–stimulating factor, McGregor notes. Despite the TROPiCS-04 results, McGregor believes sacituzumab govitecan could be a promising partner with enfortumab vedotin.

Looking ahead, if the DAD-IO trial demonstrates a response rate of approximately 75% to 80% with the addition of sacituzumab govitecan, it could generate significant enthusiasm for building upon the outcomes that the enfortumab vedotin plus pembrolizumab (Keytruda) combination has already achieved, he continues. The DAD trial data, which showed an objective response rate of 70% (95% CI, 47%-87%), albeit in a small sample (n = 23), are encouraging, he states. Anecdotally, patients have experienced durable responses on this therapy, and McGregor is hopeful that DAD-IO will allow researchers to replicate and expand on these successes.

Bradley McGregor, MD, discusses the clinical implications of the DAD-IO trial in patients with metastatic urothelial carcinoma.

Bradley McGregor, MD, senior physician, Dana-Farber Cancer Center, clinical director, Lank Center for Genitourinary Oncology, Instructor of Medicine, Harvard Medical School, discusses ongoing trials in patients with non-clear cell renal cell carcinoma (RCC). 

Recent advances have been made with therapeutic approaches in non-clear cell RCC, including further understanding the role of atezolizumab (Tecentriq) in combination with bevacizumab (Avastin) in variant histology RCC. This phase 2 study(NCT02724878) demonstrated modest response rates with the combination, McGregor explains. Moreover, the role of cabozantinib (Cabometyx) plus nivolumab (Opdivo) has been examined in an ongoing phase 2 trial (NCT03635892) in the same patient population. Although patients with chromophobe histology had encouraging responses with the doublet, efficacy was most notable in patients with translocation, unclassified, or papillary RCC, with response rates close to 50%, McGregor says. 

Given the ongoing phase 3 COSMIC-313 trial (NCT03937219), which is evaluating cabozantinib, nivolumab, and ipilimumab (Yervoy) vs nivolumab and ipilimumab in clear cell RCC, an additional investigation trial was opened to evaluate the triplet combination in patients with variant histology RCC, McGregor continues. This will be an important trial for these patient populations that represent an unmet need in RCC, McGregor adds. Patients are allowed to have received 1 prior line of therapy but cannot have previously received cabozantinib or immunotherapy, McGregor concludes. 

Bradley McGregor, MD, discusses ongoing trials in patients with non-clear cell renal cell carcinoma (RCC). 


Dr. McGregor Discusses Ongoing Trials in Non-Clear Cell RCC

Bradley McGregor, MD, clinical director, Lank Center for Genitourinary Oncology, senior physician, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, and instructor of medicine, Harvard Medical School, discusses the focus of future research efforts in renal cell carcinoma (RCC).

 Over the past 4 years, several frontline combination strategies have demonstrated significantly improved overall survival compared with historical standards for patients with RCC, McGregor explains. For example, in April 2018, the combination of nivolumab (Opdivo) and ipilimumab (Yervoy) received FDA approval for the first-line treatment of patients with intermediate- and poor-risk RCC. In addition, the frontline combination of pembrolizumab (Keytruda) and axitinib (Inlyta) was approved by the FDA in May 2019 for the treatment of patients with advanced RCC, McGregor says.

 Moreover, on October 19, 2020, the FDA granted a priority review designation to a supplemental biologics license application and supplemental new drug application for nivolumab plus cabozantinib (Cabometyx) for the treatment of patients with advanced RCC.

However, not all patients respond to combination therapy with VEGF TKIs and immunotherapy, McGregor says. Initial data suggest that 6% to 25% of patients who receive combination therapy have progressive disease as the best response. As such, future research efforts should aim to develop novel treatment approaches to improve responses, McGregor concludes. 

Bradley McGregor, MD, discusses the focus of future research efforts in renal cell carcinoma. 

Dr. McGregor on the Focus of Future Research Efforts in RCC 

Bradley McGregor, MD, clinical director, Lank Center for Genitourinary Oncology, senior physician, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, and instructor of medicine, Harvard Medical School, discusses future research in metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer (mCRPC).

​The use of novel imaging ​with prostate-specific membrane antigen PET could help identify oligometastatic disease, which, with the use of aggressive local therapies, could delay the need for prolonged systemic therapy, says McGregor.

Additionally, the recent approvals of ​the PARP inhibitors ​olaparib (Lynparza) and rucaparib (Rubraca) were pivotal additions to the prostate cancer paradigm, McGregor explains.

Immunotherapy has not been particularly effective in prostate cancer. However, findings from the interim analysis of cohort 6 of the phase Ib COSMIC-021 study showed synergistic activity with the combination of cabozantinib (Cabometyx)and atezolizumab (Tecentriq) in patients with mCRPC who have progressed on abiraterone acetate (Zytiga) and enzalutamide (Xtandi). As such, ​results from the pivotal phase 3 study are highly anticipated, McGregor concludes.

Bradley McGregor, MD, discusses future research in metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer. 

Dr. McGregor on Future Research in mCRPC

Bradley McGregor, MD, clinical director, Lank Center for Genitourinary Oncology, senior physician, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, and instructor of medicine, Harvard Medical School, discusses the evolving treatment landscape of renal cell carcinoma (RCC).

The field is expanding to evaluate new pathways, targets, and combination therapies to improve outcomes for patients with RCC, McGregor explains.

Historically, the treatment paradigm was limited until the advent of TKIs, says McGregor. Moreover, the addition of cabozantinib (Cabometyx) to the second-line setting was important as the agent demonstrated a survival benefit versus sunitinib (Sutent).

Additionally, nivolumab (Opdivo) has been a welcomed addition to the armamentarium, McGregor continues.

In the frontline setting, multiple combination regimens, including nivolumab plus ipilimumab (Yervoy), have demonstrated overall survival benefit compared with TKI monotherapy, concludes McGregor.

Bradley McGregor, MD, discusses the evolving treatment landscape of renal cell carcinoma.  



Dr. McGregor on the Evolving Treatment Landscape of RCC 

According to the 2018 Globocan report, over 400,000 cases of renal cell carcinoma (RCC) are diagnosed yearly, resulting in more than 175,000 deaths around the world.

 One-third of patients with RCC have unresectable locally advanced or metastatic disease, and 20% to 40% of patients presenting with localized disease eventually have metastatic relapses.

 Among the histological types of RCC, clear-cell RCC is the most frequent type by a wide margin.

Significant advances in the treatment of metastatic RCC occurred during the past decade, with multiple targeted therapies added as treatment options for this disease. These therapies were either of the antiangiogenic class, including sunitinib (Sutent), sorafenib (Nexavar), axitinib (Inlyta), pazopanib (Votrient), cabozantinib (Cabometyx), lenvatinib (Lenvima), and bevacizumab (Avastin), or the mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) inhibitor class, such as temsirolimus (Torisel) and everolimus (Afinitor).

 However, some tumors are inherently resistant to these therapies and most tumors that initially respond will eventually progress.

Furthermore, in contrast to the wide array of available therapies in the metastatic setting, in patients with localized disease, the results of trials investigating adjuvant systemic therapy after nephrectomy have so far been underwhelming. Sunitinib is currently the only therapy shown to confer a statistically significant benefit compared with placebo in the adjuvant setting, but only for diseasefree survival, not overall survival, and with conflicting results between 2 pivotal trials.

Immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) are a new class of drugs designed to augment a patient’s immune response against a tumor by targeting immune checkpoints that physiologically limit immune activation. The immune checkpoints that are the targets of FDA-approved drugs are PD-1, PD-L1, and CTLA-4.

ICIs have thus far shown significant survival benefit in a large number of tumor types, including RCC,5 and at the time of this writing, 6 PD-1/PD-L1 inhibitors and 1 CTLA-4 inhibitor have been approved by the FDA. A few, such as nivolumab (Opdivo) and ipilimumab (Yervoy), are approved for use in RCC, although others are undergoing testing in this disease type.

In the metastatic setting, nivolumab was the first ICI to show significant efficacy in the treatment of RCC. The landmark CheckMate-025 phase III trial randomized patients with at least 1 prior line of systemic therapy to either nivolumab or everolimus, showing a hazard ratio (HR) for overall survival (OS) of 0.73 (98.5% CI, 0.57-0.93; 

 = .002) and an overall response rate (ORR) of 25%.

 Subsequently, atezolizumab (Tecentriq) and pembrolizumab (Keytruda) showed ORRs of 25% and 38.2% in treatment-naïve patients in the phase II IMmotion150 and KEYNOTE-427 trials, respectively.

Although these results were considered significant advances in the treatment of metastatic RCC, it was hypothesized that patient treatment outcomes could be further improved by combining ICIs with other drugs.

To that end, multiple ICI-based combinations have been tested. In the pivotal CheckMate-214 trial, the combination of nivolumab and ipilimumab significantly improved OS in patients with intermediate-/poor-risk untreated metastatic RCC (HR, 0.63; 99.8% CI, 0.44-0.89; 

 <.001) and in the overall patient population (HR, 0.68; 99.8% CI, 0.49-0.95; 

 <.001) compared with sunitinib. In the intermediate-/poor-risk subgroup, nivolumab plus ipilimumab conferred a significant benefit over sunitinib for ORR (42% vs 27%; 

 <.001), with only a trend in favor of nivolumab and ipilimumab for progression-free survival (PFS) (HR, 0.82; 99.1% CI, 0.64-1.05;

 = .03). However, in the favorable-risk population, the nivolumab with ipilimumab combination led to significantly worse PFS (HR, 2.18; 99.1% CI, 1.29-3.68; 

leading to the current FDA approval only for those presenting with intermediate- and poor-risk disease.

A second approach to ICI-based combinations for RCC is combining ICIs with inhibitors of the vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) pathway, which could augment the efficacy of ICIs by attenuating tumor immunosuppression.

 In particular, in previously untreated patients with metastatic RCC, the recent phase III IMmotion 151 study showed a significant PFS advantage (HR, 0.74; 95% CI, 0.57-0.96; 

 = .02) of an atezolizumab-plusbevacizumab combination over sunitinib in the subset of patients with PD-L1 ≥1% on tumor-infiltrating immune cells, as well as an ORR of 43% (vs 35% for sunitinib).

 Phase I clinical trials have yielded promising results with combinations of pembrolizumab plus axitinib (ORR,73%, untreated patients),

 pembrolizumab plus lenvatinib (ORR, 63%, untreated and previously treated patients),

 avelumab (Bavencio) plus axitinib (ORR, 58%, untreated patients),

 and cabozantinib with nivolumab plus/minus ipilimumab (ORR, 54% in the sarcomatoid RCC subset of the trial, previously treated patients) (

Multiple ongoing trials are also awaited to further define optimal ICI-based combinations for the treatment of metastatic RCC, including phase III trials of cabozantinib plus nivolumab compared with sunitinib (CheckMate 9ER, NCT03141177), axitinib plus avelumab compared with sunitinib (JAVELIN Renal 101, NCT02684006), lenvatinib plus pembrolizumab or lenvatinib plus everolimus compared with sunitinib (NCT02811861), and axitinib plus pembrolizumab compared with sunitinib (KEYNOTE-426, NCT02853331).

Given the disappointing results of most trials investigating adjuvant treatment for RCC, improving the cure rates of surgery for localized RCC constitutes an important unmet need. Multiple trials are investigating whether adjuvant ICI therapy could improve outcomes for localized RCC, including IMmotion-010 (NCT03024996, atezolizumab vs placebo), KEYNOTE-564 (NCT03142334, pembrolizumab vs placebo), RAMPART (NCT03288532, durvalumab plus tremelimumab vs durvalumab vs observation), and CheckMate-914 (NCT03138512, nivolumab plus ipilimumab vs placebo).

The Need for Biomarkers of Response to ICIS

A novel approach to using ICIs in the localized setting involves perioperative immune checkpoint inhibition both in the neoadjuvant and adjuvant settings. The rationale is that more tumor antigens are available to participate in the activation of the immune system before tumor resection, optimizing the ICI-induced response and hypothetically improving cure rates.

 PROSPER RCC (NCT03055013) is an ongoing phase III trial that randomizes patients with high-risk localized RCC to either 1 month of neoadjuvant nivolumab followed by nephrectomy and 9 months of adjuvant nivolumab versus nephrectomy alone. The results of this perioperative ICI trial along with those of the adjuvant ICI trials could add important treatment options for patients with localized but high-risk disease.

Considering that tumor responses to ICIs and ICI-based combinations are relatively limited, with only half of patients responding at best, identifying patients most likely to respond to ICIs is of paramount importance. PD-L1 expression has been proposed as a possible biomarker of response to ICI; PD-L1 has been found to be overexpressed in about a quarter of clear-cell RCC tumors and to be associated with poorer outcomes.

 However, although PD-L1 expression ≥1% tended to be associated with superior outcomes, with the combination of nivolumab plus ipilimumab in CheckMate-214,

 it was only of prognostic value in patients treated with nivolumab alone (vs everolimus) in CheckMate-025.

Figure. ORRs of ICIs and ICI-Based Combinations (With Sunitinib Added for Comparison)

Moreover, discrepancies in where PD-L1 is measured (tumor cells, tumor-infiltrating immune cells, or both types of cells), differences in cutoffs, and the type of antibody used may limit the role of PD-L1 as a universal biomarker for response to ICIs in advanced RCC. Some specific molecular alterations have been shown to predict response to ICIs in RCC, with one study’s results showing that loss of function of the PBRM1 gene is associated with a higher rate of clinical benefit in advanced RCC.

 In solid tumors in general, other biomarkers for ICI response are under investigation, such as tumor mutational burden,

 and composition of the microbiome of the digestive tract.

Despite the wealth of new agents in the treatment of metastatic RCC, in both the first- and second-line settings, there are little data about optimal sequences of regimens. Multiple ongoing trials are therefore attempting to address such questions, with NIVOSWITCH (NCT02959554) evaluating a planned switch post TKI response, from TKI to nivolumab, compared with continuation of TKI; SUAVE (NCT03035630) comparing an avelumab/sunitinib sequence with sunitinib/ avelumab; and CheckMate-800 (NCT03029780) comparing coadministration and sequential administration of nivolumab/ipilimumab. The results of such trials should allow clinicians to better define the optimal sequencing of the different ICI drugs and targeted therapies.

Furthermore, to minimize toxicities and optimize efficacy, studies are evaluating whether ICI-regimen administration can be tailored to each patient’s response: HCRN GU16-260 (NCT03117309), OMNIVORE (NCT03203473), TITAN RCC (NCT02917772), and SAKK 07/17 (NCT03297593) are evaluating nivolumab with conditional addition or discontinuation of ipilimumab depending on response or progression. Moreover, CASE 5816 (NCT03126331) is evaluating administration of single-agent nivolumab tailored to the extent of tumor shrinkage.

Another common problem in clinical practice is whether patients with brain metastases can be efficiently and safely treated with ICIs. Unfortunately, there are little data

 to address ICI therapy in this significant subset of patients. CheckMate-21414 and -02511 excluded patients with brain metastases, whereas IMmotion-15012 and -15116 excluded all active brain metastases and have not specifically reported outcomes on patients with brain metastases. Data from the French NIVOREN study

 suggest that beyond first-line treatment with nivolumab for metastatic RCC yields an intracranial ORR of 16%, with 18/55 (32.7%) patients presenting clinical neurological deterioration requiring steroid therapy. Of these 18 patients, 17 (94.4%) had not received prior local therapy (radiotherapy or surgery) for their brain metastases, thus suggesting that patients with nonpretreated brain metastases may have worse outcomes. The Italian expanded access program study

 reported an ORR of 18.7% for patients with brain metastases (compared with 23.2% in the overall population of patients) but did not specifically report intracranial response or the outcomes of patients with nonpretreated brain metastases.

Treatment toxicity is another consideration for all classes of oncologic therapy, but the immune-related adverse events (irAEs) of ICIs merit special discussion considering their atypical characteristics.

Immune-related adverse events often occur within weeks to months of the start of therapy but may be delayed or occur after discontinuation of the ICI.

 These irAEs probably reflect a state of general immune activation but the precise mechanisms underlying these irAEs are still unclear.

 The mainstay of treatment for irAEs is immunosuppression with glucocorticoids, with additional agents, such as infliximab (Remicade), as necessary. The ICIs should be temporarily held in some cases or definitely discontinued when the irAEs are serious.

Although many patients who do not develop irAEs benefit from ICIs, some studies’ findings have suggested that patients who develop irAEs may have superior responses compared with patients who do not.

 Thus, it is currently unclear whether patients who discontinue ICIs because of irAEs should be restarted on the same drug or a drug with a different mechanism of action (eg, PD-1 inhibitor vs CTLA-4 inhibitor

); however, reports suggest that patients who discontinue because of irAEs may have prolonged clinical benefit without resumption of therapy.

 Moreover, with the proliferation of ICI-based combinations, treatment toxicities have exponentially increased and the trade-off between improved efficacy and increased toxicity should be tailored to the characteristics of each patient.

ICIs represent promising agents for the management of metastatic RCC. Although ICIs and ICI-based combinations will become part of the standard of care for patients with metastatic RCC, studies are still ongoing to determine the role of ICIs in the management of highrisk localized RCC. Biomarkers of response are needed to better define which patients respond to these therapies. Trials investigating treatment sequencing, as well as tumor response—based adaptation of therapy, could also help optimize efficacy and minimize irAEs. Furthermore, the efficacy of ICIs in subsets of patients who are known to respond poorly to therapy, such as those with brain metastases and non–clear cell RCC, remains to be fully defined. Optimal management of irAEs and whether to restart therapy after discontinuation because of irAEs are still the focus of ongoing research.

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Articles

In contrast to the wide array of available therapies in the metastatic setting of renal cell carcinoma, in patients with localized disease, the results of trials investigating adjuvant systemic therapy after nephrectomy have so far been underwhelming.

Bradley A. McGregor, MD